Who were Cholas? Where is Raja Raja Chola's tomb?

Chola Dynasty is one the longest-ruling dynasties in the worldThe Cholas ruled over large swathes of not only India, but Sri Lanka, Lakshadweep, Malaysia, Maldives and IndonesiaRaja Raja was amongst its mightiest kings, and made difficult annexations in India and abroadHow did such a mighty king die? Where does he lie buried?How did the Chola Dynasty make conquests through the ocean?How did they rule over the seas? Why did they shift their capital?What was food like during the time of the Cholas?A two-episode exploration of one of the mightiest dynasties of IndiaEp 1: Who were Cholas? Where is Raja Raja Chola's tomb?More than 1,000 years ago, the mighty Chola Dynasty ruled over large swathes of not only India, but Sri Lanka, Lakshadweep, Malaysia, Maldives and Indonesia as well. The dynasty’s unsurmountable supremacy across the Indian Ocean was ensured by Ponniyin Selvan, or Raja Raja Chola, and his successor son Rajendra Chola.With his capital at Thanjavur, Raja Raja ruled for 29 years from 985 CE to 1014 CE. During this time, he built a massive army of 9 lakh soldiers and laid the foundation for an excellent navy. He defeated the Cheras in southern Kerala, the Pandyas in Madurai, the Eastern Chalukyas in Andhra Pradesh, the Rashtrakutas in Karnataka and the Kalingas in Odisha.But how did the mighty king die? Where does he lie buried? On an open land in a Kumbakonam village? Or at the feet of a Shiva idol in Kailasanathar temple?It’s all a mystery!In Search of a Mighty KingAt Udayalur, a village near Kumbakonam in Tamil Nadu’s Thanjavur district, a faded, threadbare green cloth with the image of a leaping tiger barely flutters on a stick atop a small shed. The flag is meant to represent the banner of the mighty Chola Dynasty. Locals and history enthusiasts claim the shed is where Raja Raja rests.In the early 2000s, a study of Tamil estampages at the Directorate of Epigraphy, Archaeological Survey of India in Mysuru led researchers to a stone inscription at Udayalur. This inscription talks about the renovation of a memorial to Raja Raja during his grandson Kulothunga’s reign. Historian Kudavayil Balasubramaniam reveals that the pillar with this inscription was found at the entrance to an Amman temple at Udayalur.He says, “Stone inscriptions at the Palkulathi Amman temple at Udayalur says that the tomb of Raja Raja is in Udayalur. But the inscriptions do not mention the location. Some historians say that the Kailasanathar temple at Udayalur could be his tomb. The archaeology department should conduct a proper study by digging trenches to know whether it is his tomb or not.”When archaeologists conducted an initial study at the site, they found no evidence of a tomb. So the researchers searched the region for a Shiva temple or ‘linga’ that could mark the final resting place of Raja Raja. They concluded that the half-buried ‘linga’ in Udayalur could mark his final resting place.But not everyone buys the theory. “How can such a small shed be the tomb of a king who built the grand Brihadeeswara Temple or the Big Temple of Thanjavur?” asks a resident. Another one says that till recently the place was a dumping site. There was no sign of a king’s tomb except for the ‘linga’ which was buried two-thirds under the sand.At present, construction worker Jayaraman is a part-time priest at the shed, performing puja to the ‘linga’ near which he used to play as a child with his friends. He uses the money that occasional visitors give him to keep the temple going. He hopes the renewed interest in all things Chola will give Raja Raja his due.Theories about Raja Raja’s deathThe mystery is not just about his tomb. There are many theories about how he died. Balasubramaniam says there is written record that Raja Raja and his wife Lokamadevi performed ‘hiranya garbham’ and ‘tulabhara’ rituals at a Shiva temple in Thiruvisanallur at the end of 1013 CE. He says, “After these rituals, he would have taken ‘vanaprastham’ and retired to a small village near the Cholas’ palace city of Pazhayarai. But he did not live for long after this. Inscriptions show that his son Rajendra conducted annual rites for him in 1015 CE, which means he died soon after becoming an ascetic.”But then, what about the legend that Raja Raja fell to his death from the gopuram of his greatest creation, the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur? The effect of this story is such that even now, politicians in power do not enter the temple through its main gate believing it a bad omen for a ruler. In fact, there are many myths about the Thanjavur Temple.It is said that the Nandi installed by Raja Raja is growing!The top dome and kalasam do not cast a shadow on the ground!Also, the dome of the Sri Vimana is made of a single stone.But all these are just myths. The fact is that the Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur is an architectural marvel.Researchers say it was built by carving out stones weighing tonnes from a hill 75km from Thanjavur. The 216-foot Sri Vimana above the sanctum sanctorum was once covered with gold plates. Centuries later, invading armies peeled off the gold. The temple was completed in 1010 CE. It also served as a bank, a granary and a court. It was the centre of performing arts with more than 400 dancers and 100 musicians.V Selvakumar, head of the department of Maritime History in Marine Archaeology at the Tamil University in Thanjavur, says, “The Cholas could really build several temples. We have a maximum number of inscriptions from them. They donated land to Brahmins. They also did a lot of welfare activities. They were successful managers of the country and territory.”The Cholas built the Uyyakondan canal, which irrigates 32,000 acres in Trichy and Thanjavur!Excellent SeafarersDaring seafarers as they were, the Cholas had an exceptional navy. With a huge naval fleet, and generations of experience in voyages, they made several overseas conquests. There are fascinating stories about the unique methods that Chola sailors used to identify the ocean currents. Maritime historian J Raja Mohamad says that before setting sail, they would toss a moist ball of ash into the water and watch its long grey trail. Or, they would release Olive Ridley turtles into the water and see which side they would get floated. They also used wooden planks to assess the force and direction of the current.To know how close they were to the shore, they would release birds in the air. If the birds returned to the ship, they knew land was still far away.Nagapattinam was the main port city of the Cholas. They built sturdy wooden ships and had in-depth knowledge of the winds and monsoons and celestial navigation, says Raja Mohamad.“To build ships and boats, they joined together planks using ropes and wooden pegs. The woods were carefully chosen after checking their durability under water and resistance to insects and wood borers. Ships were built up to 200-foot in length and would weigh 350 to 400 tonnes. There were 20 different types of Vessels,” he says.Historian KRA Narasiah says the Chola seafarers had stellar navigation skills and knew the stars well. They could even use their fingers to know exact locations!Perhaps they used all these skills to lay siege over the Srivijaya Kingdom, which is the present-day Indonesia. Chinese historian Tansen Sen writes that a Srivijaya envoy went to China and told the king there that the Chola kingdom was a vassal state of the Srivijayas. This infuriated Rajendra Chola, Raja Raja’s son, and he prepared a large naval fleet for a war with Srivijaya kingdom, says K Subhasini, president of Tamil Heritage Foundation International. Geographically, the Srivijayas came as an obstacle for the Cholas international sea trade, and the envoy’s comment was no less than an insult for Rajendra.“Perhaps they attacked the port cities of Srivijaya kingdom in Malaysia, Sumatra and Palembang at the same time. It is possible that they planned the attack and created a huge naval fleet. Srivijaya had been a powerful maritime kingdom for six to seven centuries. The Cholas perhaps wanted to give a message to China that their navy was bigger than that of the Srivijaya Kingdom. After this, for nearly a century, the Cholas dominated the Malay Archipelago region,” says Subhasini. The Srivijaya Kingdom was badly defeated and could never regain its glory.The Cholas carried at least three sea expeditions to the Malay Archipelago region, and Rajendra Chola was given the title of “Kadaram Kondan”, or the conqueror of Malaysia.Script: Sonalika SinhaVoices: Surjan Singh, Pallavi Bharti, Abhishek SharmaAudio production: Sahil Gupta 108401470Ep 2: Why Cholas shifted their capital, what their art & food was likeIn 846 CE, one of the first maritime dynasties came up in India. Covering the entire south Indian peninsula and extending up to Bengal in the north and Sri Lanka in the south, this empire yielded influence and power till Sumatra and Malaysia. They were the Cholas.In this episode, we look at how the Cholas ruled their kingdom from their old capital, Thanjavur, before suddenly moving 80km away to an arid region and setting up a new capital, in Gangaikonda Cholapuram.We explore why the move may have taken place, and how life continued to prosper for the people even as the capital shifted.Forgotten capital of the CholasToday, Gangaikonda Cholapuram is an obscure village called Maligaimedu where goats graze on thorny shrubs and boys milk cows. What can be seen are a series of trenches where archaeologists and their helpers sift through layers of soil looking for clues to piece together the story of Rajendra and his capital.Six excavations have been carried out since 1980. More digging is going on as several artefacts - shards of pottery, copper coins, ivory and copper objects, iron nails, glass beads, bangles, porcelain were discovered during earlier attempts. The 1400-year-old Thanjavur was at its peak during King Raja Raja Chola’s time when he built Brihadisvara or the Big Temple, as its popularly called, to showcase the power of expanding Chola empire and its wealth. But his son moved the capital to Gangaikonda Cholapuram after his victorious expeditions to the Gangetic plains. The dynasty existed for more than 230 years after Rajendra Chola. But they did not return to their old capital. So, why did the Cholas abandon Thanjavur?According to Kudavayil Balasubramanian, a historian whom The Times of India spoke to, Thanjavur, which is surrounded by fertile lands, was not an ideal place to keep a large army with thousands of horses and elephants. Raja Raja’s son, King Rajendra, may have also wanted a large capital for his now expanded kingdom. He had defeated the kingdoms in Southeast Asian countries like Malaysia, Indonesia by this time. So he shifted his capital to celebrate his victories. Following the shift, Thanjavur which was a cantonment became an abandoned city.Centuries later, the Pandyas razed the city. Over the years, locals too took away stones from its ruined palaces to build their own homes. Thereafter, British engineers in the 19th century dismantled a large portion of the Gangaikonda Cholapuram temple, a replica of the Big Temple in Thanjavur, and used the stones to build the lower anicut across the river near Kumbakonam.What was lost in the process were the inscriptions on stone that could have told us why Rajendra shifted from his father Raja Raja’s fabled capital of Thanjavur to an arid region 80 km away north of river Kollidam.However, the Cholas who recorded their important victories on stone and bronze plates, did not give any reason for the move.Gangaikonda Cholapuram, the later capital of the Cholas, was a big city with a six-mile diameter. It had a large fort and palaces, market areas, quarters for officials and military cantonment areas. The inscriptions and copper plates show there were at least three palaces in Gangaikonda Cholapuram and all those palaces were razed down to ground.Art & food of the CholasEven as the capital was shifted, life continued to prosper for the citizens of the Chola kingdom.Sculptures and other art from the Chola era give us a peek into life during that period. Chola bronzes are the peak of Chola era art.Historians say non-vegetarian foods like Kari Choru (earlier version of biryani) were a common non-vegetarian diet and they were predominantly meat eaters.Records show that the Cholas cultivated paddy, sugar cane, banana, brinjal, black gram, cow peas (Karamani) and spinach.Stone inscriptions and literature like Jivakacintamani, Perunkathai mention the height that was attained by the art of dance during this period.Jivakacintamani, a 10th century epic, also reveals that there were books on the arts of makeup written by experts.Art of dance and sculpture was at its peak during Raja Raja's reign in the late 10th and early 11th century.Script: Rumu BanerjeeVoices: Surjan Singh and Abhishek SharmaAudio production: Anil Chauhan